England's Historic Periods

The Palaeolithic, or Old Stone Age, forms the greatest part of human occupation of Britain, covering nearly a million years. The period was characterized by communities of tool-using hunter-gatherers, migrating across the European landmass, to which Britain was regularly joined.

Several species of humans lived and evolved during the Palaeolithic and at times briefly co-existed, for instance Neanderthals and Modern Humans. They survived the ice ages, following herds of migrating animals such as reindeer, bison, and woolly mammoth. They were culturally developed with art, jewellery, and burial rites, using a variety of flint tools but primarily the handaxe.  

The Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age, saw a period following the last Ice Age when people began to form more fixed conections to locations, with evidence of huts and small settlements surviving particularly well in northern Britain.

The communities were still hunter gatherers, following herds of animals (such as red deer) over long distances. Their tools became more developed, with the introduction of microliths (small specialist tools) that were used to make weapons such as harpoons. Cultural practices also developed, with artefacts such as the antler headdresses found at Star Carr, Yorkshire.  

The world changed radically in the Neolithic period. Extensive inward migration into Britain from the European mainland occurred bringing all the elements of farming, including wheat, barley, sheep, and cows. This led to a fundamental transformation of society, with areas of landscape cleared for fields, pasture and settlements. Pottery was introduced, replacing the wood and basketry used previously.

It is also the period when monuments were first built, with henges and stone circles predominant. These brought people together to create them, and then will have been used for a variety of purposes such as debate, discussion, decision-making, and observing rituals such as deaths and personal unions. We know that many of the monuments observe astronomical points, such as the solstices, demonstrating a sophisticated and skilled society at work.

The change to a farming society had occurred completely by this point, and the Bronze Age sees the introduction of metal tools, replacing the stone tools used before. Copper was initially used but is a relatively soft metal. The addition of tin, found in Cornwall, makes a much harder metal, able to make a sharp cutting edge.

This development involved Britain in international trade, from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean, increasing cultural exchange of people and ideas as well as materials. Society expanded dramatically, as did the rise of weaponry and jewellery. This would seem to be the period when hierarchies within society expanded, with an elite developing, and, consequently, exploited peoples.

As bronze is sharper than copper, so iron is harder and sharper than bronze. Crucially, it is worked in a much simpler manner, and can be hammered, or 'wrought', rather than 'cast.' Casting is a more complex process and more prone to failure and waste.

Iron ore is also much more freely found. A much greater range of material can be made with iron, and trade increased with the continent, particularly in the later centuries when the Roman empire is expanding. This era also sees the first coinage in use, as well as very elaborate artistic motifs on items such as shields, helmets and jewellery.